Class 1 Natural History It is the observation of living plants and animals, and their interactions. Someone who looks at Natural History is called a Naturalist. Animal Defences Appearances Camouflage is concealment, meaning the thing is hidden from the observer. * Background matching is hiding by matching the surrounding area. * Sparrows have vertical lines on their body to help them blend into their background, such as meadowlands. * American Bittern camouflages using Background Matching * Crypsis is hiding by not moving. * Female Spruce Grouse camouflages using cryptic AND background matching * Eastern Screech Owl uses Crypsis AND Background matching * Mimicry is copying the background of something. * Gray Tree Frog camouflage by jj their color to match their background, and is a Bark Mimic * Seasonal Color is changing an animal’s color to match the appropriate season’s background. * Change Snowshoe Hares / Varying Hare change from brown to white for winter, being pure white for winter, changing color to help them hide. * Disruptive Patterns are patterns on the animal that breaks up an animal’s body into parts, making it harder for predators to spot from a distance. * Songbirds have eyelines / eye stripes helping them hide for example in trees or certain plants. Helps them hide the part that is exposed when they are in their nest, it breaks up the bird's head, making it harder to spot from above the nest or at a distance. * Kill Deer have lines on their breast to hide them, again using Disruptive Patterns * Canadian Goose have a white spot near their neck so the head seems apart from the body, using Disruptive Patterns * An angle-winged butterfly resembles a worn down leave. This is using the shape of the body to camouflage themselves. Class 2 Masquerade (Type of Camouflage) Camouflage does not work when you are not cryptic, i.e if the person is moving. Being Cryptic means not moving, and not disrupting your camouflage. Masquerade vs background matching: in background matching your color and your patterns match the background, whereas Masquerade is having the shape of the something or modifying the body to match the surroundings. Shape can be used for camouflage too Masquerade is changing the appearance to match the environment for camouflage, such as looking like a dead leaf, or a live leaf. * Dead Leaf Mimicry is resembling dead leaves (using masquerade) * Moths do this * Angle-winged butterflies use their shape to resemble dead leaves for camouflage, there is also mimicry going on by mimicking the background (dead leaf mimic) this is can be called Masquerade * Live Leaf Mimicry is resembling live leaves * A Katydid uses live leaf mimicry * Luna Moths hide up in the leaves, using live leaf mimicry * Twig Mimicry is resembling twigs * Inchworm uses Twig Mimicry to resemble twigs to hide (form of Masquerade) * Walking Stick insect also uses Twig Mimicry * Thorn Mimicry is resembling thorns on twigs and such * Tree Hoppers use Thorn Mimicry * Bird Dropping Mimicry is resembling bird poop, animals tend not to eat bird poop * Giant Swallowtail caterpillars use Bird Dropping Mimicry * Animals using their surroundings and putting their surroundings on them for camouflage/masquerade * Camouflaged Loopers use the surroundings (such as plants) to cover their body, hiding them from predators trying to find them. * Spittle Bugs generate a frothy wet spit-like material called spittle to hide themselves from predators * Woolly Aphids create silk strains on top of themselves to conceal themselves * Scarlet Lily Leaf Beetles Larvae (child form) coats itself with feces (poop) to conceal itself, making it seem like poop and less appetizing. Bicolored Camouflage Bicoloration offers background matching from two different surfaces (and two different sides) * Whirligig Beetles are bicolored (black above and white below) to look like sunshine to predators below water and to look like water to predators above water * Backswimmers are bicolored for the same purpose as Whirligig Beetles, but their colors are reversed, so they have to swim upside down to get the same defense as the Whirligig Beetle. * Countershading and self-shadow concealment is using bicoloration to appear flat and blend in the background during sunshine (sun creating a shadow that casts down on the belly area) * White tailed deer are dark above and light below (bicoloration), this helps them be in open areas and appear flat during sunshine to blend in their background (using Countershading) Camouflage is not failsafe. Many animals have plan B. Startle Patterns are patterns shown to predators when Camouflage fails, to startle the predator and allow time for escape (they have to be hidden) * Sphinx Moth (Hawk moths) open up their wings to scare the bird if it attacks, giving the moth time to fly away and escape. * Underwing Moth also open up wings to show bright colors and to scare predators, allowing them to escape. * Hidden Eyespots is having startle patterns in shape of eyes to scare the predator * Polyphemus Moth have eyes for startle patterns * Gray Tree Frogs have bright yellow spots that flash when they leap as a startle pattern. This frog is a bark mimic, * Startle Structure is a thing that comes out to startle * Giant Swallowtail Caterpillars, if touched on the head, will pop out bright red colored horns (called Osmeterium) that resemble a snake tongue. * Startle Sound is a sound that startles * Beavers use their tail slap to cause a startle sound * Ruffed Grouse take off with an explosive sound caused by their wings to startle. Eyespots (Always Visible) Startle Patterns are hidden until needed, but not Eyespots that are always visible, this is to trick predators to believe the animals are bigger than they are. Eyespots are hence not startle patterns. * Eyed elator have eyespots for the above * Eastern Tiger Swallowtail have eyespots for the above Class 3 Eyespots can be startle patterns if revealed suddenly, or in the case of eyes always being on the animal on display, make the animal appear larger than it is. Distraction/Deflection Patterns Startle patterns have a second function - to deflect the attack of the animal to a non-vital part. * Fake antennae / heads: * Some butterflies have ‘tails’ that look like the head of the animal to deflect the attack of the predator to a non-vital part of their body * Hairstreak butterflies have the tiny thick antenna (tail) to deflect the attack * Canadian Tiger Swallowtail butterflies have it as well * Giant Swallowtail have it as well * Autotomy is having body parts that can be discarded and grown back, typically for distraction * Five lined Skinks have tails that disconnect upon contact and move around a few seconds to distract the predator, allowing the skink to escape (grows back, but not as long), this is Autotomy Body Armor Some animals have body armor for defense making it hard to bite into them and such Hard Defenses * Millipedes (Narceus) have body armor * Snails have shells made of Calcium which is a form of body armor * Clams (Bivalves) (Calcium used to make shell) have shells that protect them * Turtles pull their heads inside their shells to protect themselves * Blanding’s Turtles have the ability to party close their shells like a bridge, they can partly close the shell (both bottom and top sides) * Snapping Turtles snap (attack) for defense because they cannot pull themselves into their shell (hence being more aggressive) Soft Defenses * Soft Hairs is a defense where if the body is hairy, predators will avoid eating them * Hard Hairs (modified hairs) are hairs that translate into hard spines * Wooly Bears have spines for hair, they roll up to protect themselves * Porcupines have quills that are modified hairs (called guard hairs) * Porcupines CANNOT shoot these hairs contrary to popular belief * Eastern Tent Caterpillars make a big silk tent around themselves to protect them, they also have hair on their body because birds do not like eating hair. * Fall Webworm also spin silk tents, they use this tent for defense and also for eating, the tent has leaves Chemical Defenses * Poison Spines are a chemical defense * Io Moth Caterpillar have poison spines * Aposematic Coloration (Warning Coloration) is having bright coloration to warn predators that the animal is poisonous * Milkweed Tussock Moth Caterpillar are brightly colored * Giant Leopard Moth Caterpillar, if endangered will roll up and expose its poisonous brightly colored spines * Yellowjacket Wasp * Red Eft has poison in the skin * Milkweed Beetle * Striped Skunk and Porcupine have warning coloration that works at night (not bright) as the are nighttime animals * Ladybugs create their own poison from plants * Sequestering (to take) is attaining chemicals (poison) from plants or other animals * Monarch Caterpillar sequester poison from Milkweeds by eating them * Milkweed Tussock Caterpillars also sequester the poison from the Milkweed * Black Swallowtail Caterpillar sequesters from Water Hemlock * Photuris fireflies (are beetles) sequester steroidal toxins * Female Photuris fireflies get their poison from eating male Photinus Fireflies * The process of copying the Photinus Firefly’s pattern, this is called Aggressive Mimicry - it is making the body look different to attract prey in for eating usually. * Chemical defenses can be released from different parts of the body * Sawfly Larvae release orally * Blister Beetles release bitter tasting Cantharidin (terpenoid) through their legs * Yellowjacket Paper wasp have injectors (stingers) * Skunks have sprayers, they spray Sulphur Alcohol * Bombardier Beetle create an explosion of hot gas that shoots out, and are brightly colored Class 4 Aposematic Coloration are warning signs conveying - I’m dangerous, don’t approach me. Typically found in insects, but also in some reptiles. Not with birds. Mullerian Mimicry is copying the coloration of animals that are dangerous or poisonous while being dangerous/poisonous yourself * Milkweed Beetle and Milkweed Bug have warning coloration (brightly red and black) * Monarch Caterpillar sequesters poison from milkweeds. When this caterpillar becomes a butterfly, it also passes on the poison to the butterfly. * Viceroy Butterflies are Mullerian Mimics and look alike with Monarch Butterflies Batesian Mimicry is copying the coloration of animals that are dangerous or poisonous while not being dangerous/poisonous yourself * It consists of a Model (the animal being mimicked) and the Mimic (animal mimicking) * Models have to be more than Mimics otherwise predator wont stop eating species if most of species is ok * Hover Flies (Model) resemble Bumblebees/Wasps/Honey Bees/Bald-faced Hornet (Models) yet the hover flies are harmless. * Sugar Maple Boar Beetle looks like Yellowjacket Wasp (model) Automimicry is the fact that animals of the same species resemble each other; the benefit of this is so if a predator has experienced a negative experience by eating one of the species, it will not go after other animals of that species. Behavioural Defenses Not all animals have warning colorations. You don’t have to be brightly colored to be toxic. * American Toads have the toxic Bufotalin yet is not brightly colored. * Bluffing; Animals can inflate themselves to look larger, this is called Bluffing. * Toads do this. * Hog-nose Snakes also bluffs, it puffs up its head to scare predators. * Thanatosis: animals playing dead to avoid predators that want to kill them (not eat). * Hog-nose Snakes also play dead, this is if the predator does not fall for bluff. * Blister Beetles also play dead (Thanatosis) * Virginia Opossums also play dead (Thanatosis) Behavioural Group Defences is gathering in groups for protection. Safety in numbers. * White tailed deers yard, (are yarding) means they gather together in large numbers * Birds do the same thing as Yarding, it is called Flocking. * Aggressive Group Defenses; Group Defences can also be aggressive * Yellow Hornet Wasps release an attack pheromone, so when one sees danger, it releases the pheromone and all come to attack * Mobbing; Smaller birds attack bigger birds by attacking them and then calling for more birds of the same pack. This is called Mobbing. * Preemptive Striking; Certain birds attack Owls in the morning so the Owls will leave by nighttime and those birds are safe. This is called preemptive striking, since it is planning ahead for the night. * Body Guards; Animals protect themselves by using other animals as well * Aphids have Carpenter Ants as guards to protect them in exchange for sap. * Animals raise flags when escaping that tell the predators / chasers that the animal has seen them and there is no point in pursuing them, or to tell other animals that there is a predator around. * Eastern Cottontail have a white tail that goes up when they run away * White Tailed Deer do this as well and have white tails. Vigilance is animals being careful and looking out for danger. There are components that help to look out for this danger. Components that help look out for danger: * Ears (Large external pianne) capture sound * Rabbits, deer and other animals have huge ears. They magnify and capture sound. Which is why large ears are so important. * Ears can pivot to different direction to scan the area without moving the head. * Beavers have small ears, as with big ears they wouldn’t be able to swim. So some animals cannot have big ears because of what they do. * Tiger Moths also have ears, but these are in form of membranes on the body (thorax) for hearing. They detect bat calls to escape by diving to the ground. Class 5 Snakes Snakes cannot hear and to compensate for this, have the Jacob’s Organ which are special sensory cells in the roof of their mouth that analyze their tongue. There are two forks in the tongues; both forks analyze different things. Olfactory Sense (Smell) * Animals have Jacobson’s Organ in their snouts which are sensory cells. * Flemen is the posture assumed by animals to expose their Jacobson’s Organ * Moose have enlarged snouts with sensory cells to analyze smells, called the Jacobson’s Organ. * Foxes have Jacobson’s Organ Scanning Visually * Eyes on the side of the head result in a 360 degree superior field of vision, but inferior depth perception. * Eyes on the front of the head results in superior depth perception, typically on animals that hunt. * Eyes on the side make the view wide, eyes on the front help you hunt. * Eye placement is affected by habitat * Beavers eyes are near the top of their head line with their nose and ears so that it can remain submerged and show very little, so that they can see, hear and smell all at the same time while being protected * Sandpipers have their eyes placed in an odd location near the top part of their head, this is because they probe for food in the ground, so the need to see aboveground incase of a predator while they are probing for food in the ground. * Wilson’s Snipe * American Woodcock * American Bittern freezes when alarmed and puts its bill into the air, providing great background matching. This behaviour thereby affects the eye placement; its eyes are placed near the bill to see animals are coming towards it. But, it cannot see behind it, so it has to turn around to account for that * Large Eyes * Animals that are night active have really big eyes as they gather more light * Eyeshine is the reflection in their eyes at night and is the white shine * Tapetum lucidum is a reflective layer that bounces back light that the sensory cells were unable to pick up, so that the sensory cells have another chance of picking them up. * White tailed deer * Flying Squirrels * More eyes means more protection, this goes hand in hand with safety in numbers * Deers yard due to safety in numbers AND more eyes * Birds flock due to safety in numbers AND more eyes Bird Flock Species * Single-species flock is a flock of only one type of bird * Sandpipers * Canada Geese * Waxwings (Important to know) * Mixed-species flock is a flock of multiple species of birds * Black-throated Blue Warblers * Flocks survive by not having conflict amongst one another for gathering food * Single species flocks fly for food in large quantities so that the whole flock can eat without competing for the food. * Mixed species flocks extract different resources found in small quantities, little competition. Plant Defences Plants also have defences and also have predators, but unlike animals, they cannot move. They have to be more devious in the way they defend themselves. Damaged Plant means that a plant has lost a battle Healthy Plant means that the plant has not yet lost a battle Physical Defenses * Constitutive Defenses are defences that are always present. * Induced Defenses are defences that are not always present. Armor * Bark * This is on trees that is a woody armor that protects trees from animals. * Hard Coats * Seeds can be protected by hard coatings protecting them from being eating. * Acorns * Thorns * Thorns are modified branches. * Plants can be protected from thorns or prickly coatings * Thistles are protected by thorns/prickly coatings. * Prickles are outgrowths on the skin of the plant, like hairs on the body. * Prickly Ash have prickles * New rose buds have prickles * Hawthorn Plants have thorns * Soft Hairs (Trichomes) * Trichomes are soft hairs on the plant that only protect from small animals, for example making it harder for them to climb. * Ragweed has Trichomes * Glandular Trichomes are Trichomes with chemicals that go into the system of the predator. * Stinging Nettles have them * Inducible is the ability to grow Trichomes when necessary (meaning they do not always have them) * Water Smartweed Digestibility Reducers * Structural Elements make plants hard to digest * Cellulose * Hemicellulose * Pectin * Lignin * Silica * Horsetails * Grasses * Tannins are a drying agent that make the animal's mouth dry when eaten. They are not ‘Structural Elements’ * Calcium Oxalate Crystals protect plants from predators and burn the mouth of predators * Arum plants * Skunk Cabbage * Jack-in-the-pulpit Plant Chemical Defenses * Terpenoids are a class of chemicals that taste bitter and repel animals and do not contain nitrogen * Milkweed have cardiac glycosides and thereby use Terpenoids * Pine Cones have Resins that are Terpenoids * Poison Ivy have Resins that are Terpenoids * Alkaloids are a class of chemicals that make animals sick and do contain nitrogen * Are Constitutive Defenses * Interfere with the animal’s digestive system so that food cannot be dissolved properly * Asters * Buttercups * Hydrogen Cyanide is a deadly poison that a plant cannot store without killing itself. They store this poison in leaves/separate components for predators to eat. * Cherries * Bracken Wound Hormones are sent by plant parts to other plant parts when the plat is under attack. This allows communication between the parts of plants and allows the plant to get alerted of an attack so that it can start preparing its defences. * Potato plants do this Moulting Hormone helps the insect develop, this hormone stays with the insect in adulthood * Phytoecdysones; Plants produce Moulting Hormone to cause rapid growth and as a result death for the insect. * Ferns (Rock Polypody) * Bracken Fern Juvenile Hormone is only needed in the early stages of the insect's growth and must be stopped after pupil stage otherwise the insect cannot grow to adulthood * Phytoejuvenile; Plants produce Juvenile Hormone to prevent animals from growing to adulthood and dying as a result. * Balsam Fur Class 6 Plant Defences Cont. Chemical Defenses * Animal Reproductive Hormones * Plants can mess up the animal’s ability to reproduce, by producing Phytoestrogens, and stops bigger animals from reproducing * Phototoxins; If animals consumes this, the toxins migrate to the skin of the animal making their skin highly vulnerable to UV damage, causing animals to ultimately die. * Mustard Smell (Mustards) is advertising the plant’s toxicity * Plants use aposematic coloring (danger warning) as well * Fruit have this; raw growing fruit has coloring to indicate it is not ready to eat Phytohormones are used by the plant to get a response from the rest of the plant (plant parts communication) Extrafloral nectaries is produced by some plants to entice ants to come to plant to defend the plant from other predators Plants can call protectors (such as Wasps) and tell them that they are being attacked by caterpillars or other predators. Environmental Stresses (Animals) Sub-zero temperatures (extreme cold problem) Biggest problem for animals and insects is that water turns to ice. * Sometimes animals get stuck in frozen water, then water expands and kills them. Cold-blooded (Ectotherme) Animals Animals’ internal temperatures are controlled by the outer temperatures. Warm-blooded (Endotherms) Animals Animals’ internal temperatures are not controlled by the outer temperatures. Dealing with Extreme Cold Body Changes * Mammals grow hair to protect themselves from the extreme cold * Guard Hair (Outer Hair) are the hair out on the animal, visible. * Under the Guard Hair, they have under fur that traps body heat for the mammal * Birds grow bulkier feathers and have Contour Feathers on the outside and Down which is feathers underneath * Mammals (only) have fat to warm themselves * White fat is on the body, to provide insulation, called Subcutaneous Fat * Brown fat is on the inside, for burning for warmth. * Birds add Subcutaneous Fat as well, for fuel. * At night, they Shiver to burn up fat, providing the animal with heat. (Thermogenesis) Gloger’s Rule states that animals farther north are paler in coloration, suggesting there is a link between pale colors dealing with the cold better. * Best color for warmth is White, this is because pale colors retain heat better * Snowy Owls are white * Artic Foxes are white * Polar Bears are white Allen’s Rule states that short extremities are better than longer extremities, as in the north, you find animals with smaller extremities. Bergmann's Rule states that Low Surface Area to Volume Ratio and a rotund (round) shape is better for surviving in cold conditions; it helps with heat regeneration and retention * Big Ears, Long Tails, and basically bigger extremities are not as great shapes for extreme cold. * States that rotund (round) shapes are good for surviving cold conditions. Animal Behavioural Features Rete Mirabile (Countercurrent Heat Exchanger) Typically found in ducks (or animals with webbed feet), this prevents the animal from losing heat from their bodies, as what the Rete Mirabile will do is cool down blood going down to the legs that are making contact with cold surfaces so that there is less heat loss. * Ducks regulate the blood temperature that gets sent to its legs, so it will lower the temperature. Tucking is when animals tuck their extremities under their feathers to keep them warm. * Swans tuck their legs under their feathers to keep them warm. * Ducks do this by standing on one leg and keeping the other leg under their feathers. Counter-current vessels are found in some animal’s noses that preheat the air before it goes to the body and lungs. Animals that use this keep their mouth closed and breathe through nose. Shelters / Resting Spots Roost Site is where Birds choose to sleep and is very important. * Coniferous Trees are where most birds sleep, as any heat they lose is trapped by the tree, and when snow comes in it provides an insulating blanket. * Tree Cavities; Animals go into small tree cavities to sleep. * Woodpeckers stay in cavities inside the tree overnight. * Small Owls do this as well * Black capped chickadees, Voles and Flying Squirrels gather in one cavity (per species) in groups to share body heat * Custom Shelter; Some Animals build their own shelter * Muskrat Lodges * Beaver Lodges * Beavers add mud for insulation Class 7 Subnivean layer is a layer underneath and is warm as the earth retains heat from the warm fall ground. This layer can be accessed only by small animals * Red Squirrels go under the snow for this * Deer Mice go under snow for this * There are dangers however, such as animals suffocating at the surface as well as predators watching and listening for animals borrowing to attack. Inside Snow; Certain Animals go inside snow to survive the winter * Ruffed Grouse Snow Bed; Ruffed grouse dive into the snow to spend the night, they create a little snow cavern to keep them warm, called a Snow Bed. Basking in the sun is using the early morning sunlight to absorb solar energy for warmth * Early in the morning, birds will come out to absorb the solar energy and using the sun to warm themselves up Torpor is a state of deep sleep animals enter where they reduce their heart rate and body temperature in order to conserve energy * Black-capped chickadees enter Torpor * Even though in Torpor, Birds still shiver for heat as it is thermogenesis Ectotherms Survival Ectotherms are animals that do not generate their own body heat and cannot afford to be out in sub-zero temperatures at all. * Snakes are ectotherms; they cannot be out in sub-zero temperatures. Frostline is the level at which the frost affects the ground. It is a few degrees above 0 Behavioural Freeze Avoidance is avoiding freezing by going below the Frostline to the ground that is warm (few degrees above 0) to prevent animal from freezing * Animals that go below the Frostline * Snakes go below the Frostline to prevent getting frozen and become dormant * Hibernaculum is a group of Snakes dormanting (being dormant) together * American Toads dig below the frost line using behavioural avoidance * Many Salamanders dig below the frost line as well * Animals that go to the bottom of ponds/lakes * All adults and most Baby / Hatchling turtles avoid freezing by going to the bottom in the ponds and lakes * Many frogs do the same as turtles by going to the bottom in ponds Insects Survival Above Frostline Ootheca is a special cover that protects insects’ eggs during the winter, this allows adult insects to die and still exist when winter ends * Cryoprotectants (protect - life) are chemicals that protect an animal * They modify the temperature the animal can go down to (so animals can survive very low temperatures) * Glycerol is used as a form of antifreeze used in the Ootheca to protect the animal Walking Sticks eggs’ also survive the winter by being covered by Capitulum, a substance ants like to eat. * Ants will take these eggs to their nest, eat the Capitulum and then dispose of the leftover eggs * These leftover eggs that are disposed of remain in the nest protected and hence hatch unharmed Supercool is when no ice forms inside the body of the animal. This is usually due to the animal using a form of anti-freeze. Insects directly surviving winter Pupal cases and cocoons keep the dormant insect from contacting water/ice, protecting them from the cold * Silk Moths survive the winter in Pupae stage Wooly Bear Caterpillars remain in the caterpillar stage all winter long and survive by having a Cryoprotectant (Glycerol). Female Mosquitoes survive the winter as adults by stopping eating in the fall, ridding themselves of any liquid, and use a form of anti-freeze Angle-winged Butterflies survive overwinter as supercooled adults, and this is why these butterflies are one of the first things we see each spring Freeze Tolerance is the ability of allowing ice to form without killing the animal. Ice is formed between the cells but not inside the cells. * Golden Fly Grub allows ice to form in non-vital areas. Freeze Tolerant Animals (Freeze Tolerance) are Animals that can survive freezing. Some Herps (reptiles such as frogs) freeze completely during the winter and survive * They are obviously Freeze Tolerant * Gray Tree Frogs freeze * Wood Frogs freeze * Spring Peepers freeze * Chorus Frogs freeze Goldenrod Gall Fly grubs survive inside Golden Rods (Special Location). * Goldenrod Flies lay their eggs on Goldenrod stems. * Their eggs are coated with a special coating that makes the plant grow around the egg * Goldenrod Gall is the circle (abnormal growth) that grows around the egg and is what the grub lives in, and is used for food * Galls are plant swellings * The Grubs are protected internally as well and are Freeze Tolerant * They have Cryoprotectants (primarily Glycerol). * Between the cells are non-vital spots called Ice Nucleating Sites that can afford being frozen and attract ice, allowing the Grub control over where ice is formed Snapping Turtles do not supercool and are not freeze tolerant, instead, they go down to bottom of ponds/lakes and absorb oxygen through their skin. * Hatchling Snapping Turtles head towards water to survive the winter. Some Hatchling Painted Turtles are freeze tolerant (not adults) before they exit the den they hatched in, allowing them to freeze. But once they have left, they are no longer freeze tolerant and have to go to water like the rest. Endotherms Survival Endotherms (Warm Blooded) are animals that cannot freeze. Some do survive winter by becoming dormant. Animals become Lethargic (not Torpor/Hibernation) * Racoons undergo periods of Lethargy * Porcupines go under their dens being Lethargic as well Animals that undergo light periods of Torpor (Hibernation) * Chipmunks undergo partial periods of Hibernation, they retain a low heartbeat and low temperature but awaken every few days * Bats undergo partial periods of Torpor as well, lowering their body temperature but not lowering their heart rate so that they can move to warmer parts of their caves easily. * Black Bears retain very low heart beats (7 beats per minute), but have a very high body temperature and are easily awoken. * They do not shit or piss during this period, they have a plug in their rectum that stops them from shitting called a Tappen * They are still fat when they come out in spring because they rely on their fat as there is not a lot of food for them in the start on spring * Black Bears climb Beech Trees to eat Beech Nuts Animals that undergo True Hibernation * Groundhogs have their heartbeat go down to near zero as well as their body temperature goes near zero. World’s largest true hibernators. * Jumping Mice are also true/deep hibernators Class 8 Mobility (Snow) Physical adaptations * Tall Legs help traveling through deep snow * Moose have very tall legs to get into deep snow and travel * Larger Surface Area helps walking on top of snow, like snow shoes * Larger Hind Feet; Certain Animals have larger hind feet to act like snowshoes * Snowshoe Hares have huge hind feet giving the animal large surface area of feet * Fishers/Martens have very large hind feet * Ruffed Grouse grow scales on the side of each toe giving them a larger surface area, these scales wear down by the summer and grow back in the fall Behavioural Adaptations * Subnivean Space also solves the mobility problem as it is easier to move around there, so that solves mobility problems for small animals that reside there. * White-tailed Deer gather and yard. * They remain in areas with less snow and more food * Use tracks of other deers to help getting around * Browse Line identifies where White-tailed Deer feed in winter * Breaking the Trail is touching a part of the snow trail the first time, making it easier for others to touch that same spot. * Wolves often walk in single file, putting their feet exactly where the one ahead has, taking advantage of the trail being broken by the previous wolf * Tabagoanning is when the animal have long bodies that they use to slide on their bellies to travel * Otters have this * Minks have this Migration (Animals that do not stay and escape sub-zero temperatures) Not all animals stay to face the challenges of winter and instead escape sub-zero temperatures. * Geese migrate * Red Bats migrate * Common Green Darner Dragonflies migrate * Monarch Butterflies migrate to Mexico and then to mountains * Insect-gleaning (that feed on insects) Songbirds migrate due to lack of food supply as the major issue rather than temperature. Bird Migration * White Fat is the Power Supply for birds * Half of birds that migrate die. Birds that migrate great Distances * Scarlet Tanagers fly to Brazil * Artic Tern, ex-World champion Migrator (20,000 KM each year) * Red Knot, World champion Migrators, (26,700 KM each year) Bird Migration Time * Nighttime Migration * Reasons for migrating during the night * It is Calmer at night (in terms of wind) * It is Cooler (decreasing the chances of dehydration) * There are fewer Predators * Most Songbirds migrate only at night * Daytime Migration * Usually, predatory birds migrate during the day and they face challenges in terms of energy expenditure * Thermals are air currents * Soaring is using the air current to move instead of flapping a bird's wings * Slotted Feathers gives the bird extra lift * Thermal Hopping is using Thermals as springs to glide up and down so that birds can travel without expending much energy. This allows the birds to fly longer distances with little fuel, but, this needs sunshine. * Bald Eagles * Turkey Vultures * Swallows are fast fliers and burn up a lot of fuel, as a result they feed on flying insects to replenish fuel. * Hummingbirds migrate as soon as the plants begin to disappear as they need these plants while migrating to replenish fuel. * Full Time Migration (Migrating 24/7) * Red Knots migrate 24/7, their record is 8000 km in 6 days non stop. Migration Navigation * Daytime Migrants navigate using the sun, landforms and other visual cues * Nighttime Migrants navigate using the moon, and constellation stars * Both Daytime and Nighttime Migrants use the Earth’s Magnetic Field * Birds, both daytime and nighttime migrants, use the Earth’s Magnetic Field to navigate * Rhodopsin is a retinal photopigment that is probably involved in their GPS. Migration Group Position (Custom Title) * Geese fly in a v-shape to conserve energy, by getting a free lift from the goose in front. That free lift is created when the air hits and leaves the wing of the goose that is in front. Banding is putting a little band on the bird, typically on the foot, with a number, revealing a lot of secrets of migration to us. * Mist Nets are used to capture Birds for banding * Geolocators are used to provide good migration data Class 9 Plant Survival In The Winter Some plants have parts that die off, and the main part lives under the snow where it is not as cold as above (similar to animals). * Cold Hardy is the plant world’s version of animal’s Freeze Tolerance, allowing the plant or plant part to survive the dominant cold temperature in the area, as ice is formed between cells and not inside cells * The main parts of the plant that live under the snow also need to become Cold Hardy (need to acclimate). * Acclimation is the process of becoming Cold Hardy and can be broken down into two stages * First stage is triggering by a change in the photoperiod * Photoperiod is a ratio between daylight and darkness (day duration) * Phytochromes are sensors that react to a change in the photoperiod, allowing the plant to begin preparation for acclimation. * Cells begin to go Dormant * Second stage is triggered by not below zero, but still, cold temperatures, that causes the plant membranes to begin preparing for the cold temperature. * In order to become Cold Hardy, and acclimate, the plants experience the following * Antifreeze components are added * Water in the exposed parts (such as leaves and twigs) that stay above the snow is evaporated to prevent the exposed part from freezing. * Cells have their water drawn out (removed) to increase their solute concentration, which results in their freezing point to be lower and their membranes more flexible * Plants allow ice to form between the cells but there is a membrane that prevents water from flowing inside the cell, saving it from the water freeze issue. Plants use chlorophyll to use sun’s energy to create heat during the winter. Trees and plants that retain needles during the winter are vulnerable to be damaged by solar radiation. * To cope with this, they create xanthophyll pigments to protect themselves Skunk Cabbage is a plant that heats up in early spring so that it melts the snow around itself * Some insects hide inside this plant to use the heat it creates, during the winter Desiccation is another problem that causes plant parts to dry up during sunny days, and they prevent this from occurring by utilizing various methods such as * Having a small surface area (smaller parts) * Confers Trees retain their leaves so size and shape is important for them * Evergreen Trees are green year round and their surface area is big, so to cope for that fact, they curl up to achieve a small surface area * Rock Polypody are evergreen (fern) * Conifers Trees are evergreen (tree) * Deciduous Trees have a large surface area and lose their leaves during winter to achieve a small surface area, this is called Deciduous (Shedding of Leaves). * Closing their stomata (allows air and gas going in/out) so that water cannot escape * Have waxy cuticles that prevent the plant from being dried * Having hairs on the underside that help to retain moisture on the leaves and break up the wind that dries the plant up. Red Maple trees are trees that have leaves that come in two colors, red and yellow * This is because the colors represent genders. * Male Trees turn red * Female Trees leaves turn yellow Weight of snow is a problem as it might break branches or parts of the tree * Conifers retain their leaves during winter, and since the leaves are smaller, this helps them with the weight * Shapes also help some trees shed snow * Short branches with small needles * Spire shape is the shape of a christmas tree (thin and tall at the top and fatter as you go down) * Balsum Fur * Spindly shape is the tree being very skinny and parts of the leaves being clumped on parts of it * Black Spruce * Shapes: http://i59.tinypic.com/16bzms9.jpg Survival in Excessive Heat Plants Survival in Excessive Heat Plants face a problem in the heat as well * Excessive Heat can cause Desiccation (Drying out) * Like in the winter, to prevent Desiccation the idea is to have a small surface area * Plants reduce their leaf surface area by curling their leaves (like in the winter) * They also close their stomata (like in the winter as well) Animal Survival in Excessive Heat * Animals can move to shady areas and site for shade * Animals (non-insects) can go into water where it is cool * Insects use alternative strategies for cooling as they cannot go into water * They shunt (move) the blood down to parts of the body with larger surface area (long abdomen for example) * Obelisk is a position that Dragonflies assume where they point their abdomen towards the sun to prevent it from heating up by the sun hitting it, and to provide shade to the other important parts of the body * Stilting is a position that Tiger Beetles assume where they stand tall on their legs to protect their body from the hot surface below * Evaporative Cooling is evaporating the warm water inside and making the air that the animal breathes cooler * Bees rub liquid on their bodies that evaporates, using Evaporative Cooling * Turkey Vultures pee (excrete) on their legs so that it evaporates, using Evaporative Cooling * Panting is a form of Evaporative Cooling * Foxes do this * Birds do this * Ducks bypass the Rete Mirabile (used to conserve heat) and more blood is shunted to extremities * Beavers bypass the Rete Mirabile and shunt more warm blood to their tail because it has a larger surface area * Honeybees are Social Insects, they gather together and use their wings to cool the hive down * Hyperthermia is a dangerous strategy where animals allow their internal temperature raise above the normal temperature to lose more body heat and cool down * Mourning Doves use a dangerous strategy and allow their internal temperature to rise to 45 degrees (1 more degree and they die) Nutrition Plants can make their own food but their challenge is finding raw materials to generate that food Animals get their nutrients from * Eating plants * Eating other Animals Herbivory is the action of animals eating plants * Maple Spindle Gall Mites eat leaves Detritivore is an animal that eats dead plant material * Millipedes eat pine pollen Nectar is hidden in a special part in the flower that requires something special to be accessed * Long Proboscis (tongue) are used by some insects to get nectar * Long Beaks are sometimes required to get nectar, and there are certain plants that have nectar hidden very deep, requiring certain types of animals to get nectar * Hummingbirds have long beaks and also long tongues * They have a Hyoid Apparatus that allows the tongue to be extensible Sap is in plants that is inside the plant, requiring some sort of stabbing to occur to get the sap * Bugs have parts that probe the plants called Stylets to poke the plant and get the sugars * Aphids do this and are sucking bugs Filter Feeders are animals that collect nutrients found in water, and this is how to get their nutrition, thereby having “food delivered to them” * Animals that Filter Feed typically do not move much * Clams are Filter Feeders, they filter the nutrients out of the water that comes to them * Baby Black Flies are Filter Feeders, and they feed using little brushes on their head called Lateral Brushes that open up to gather material coming in, and then close to eat material that came in. * Dabblers or Puddle Ducks dabble in the water to gather things using their large bills, the water goes out and the nutrients are left in * Lamellae are little bristle brushes that capture the food material that is in the water (helping to filter feed * Swan * Mallard * Tongues also help filter food and capture nutrients and food from the water Class 10 Nutrition (Cont.) Animals face issues when eating plants because of Tough Structural Components in leaves, and need to break these down in order to process them and get their nutrients. This process can be broken down into two categories Ingestion (Getting food into their mouth) * Radula is a sharp component, like a chainsaw, with teeth that come out to process plant tissues. * Slugs and Snails have radulas * Mandibles are Modified Mouthparts that are used to cut apart plant tissues. * Caterpillars have Mandibles to cut apart plant tissues * Leaf blotch miners are caterpillars that live inside the leaf and eat leaves from the inside * Modified Teeth are teeth that have been modified to be used to eat plant material * Incisors are modified teeth * Incisors self-sharpen * Beavers have Incisors and their teeth are orange because they are full of iron * Moose only have lower incisors, and use the upper part of their mouth, which is extremely hard, to hold in place branches/leaves so they can then use their lower incisors to pull the branches/leaves off. * Cheek-teeth are modified teeth that grind and process food * Masseters are muscles that power the Cheek-teeth * Moose have cheek teeth they use to process food before it is eaten. * Analogous Structures are components of animals that have the same function but different origins and structures * * Radula, Mandibles and Cheek-teeth are analogous as all perform the same function but have different structures/origins * Gizzard is the tool Birds use to break hard structures into smaller pieces as they have no teeth * Ruffed Grouse have Gizzards * Gizzards can grind amazing hard substances such as broken glass, razors and nails * Grit are small stones that birds swallow to help break down food, helping with the Gizzard END OF MIDTERM COVERAGE Digestion (Processing Food Internally) Digestive Enzymes are used to digest food, but most animals are unable to produce them. * Slugs/Snails are some animals that produce Digestive Enzymes Caterpillars do not produce digestive enzymes and hence waste a lot of nutrition in their food. * However, they can afford to do this as they have a vast amount of food for them to consume. Animals such as Moose and Deer get the help of bacteria to digest their food. * This is called a Symbiotic relationship between the bacteria and the moose. Rumination is the process of re-chewing food by bringing food back into the mouth, breaking up hard plant tissues/walls. * Rumen is the chamber where bacteria live that that help digest food * Ruminant is an animal that performs rumination. * Moose, Cows and Deer have rumens. Caecum (plural Caeca) is the chamber that bacteria live in for animals that do not have a rumen. * Rabbit have it * Beavers have it * Geese have it Coprophagy is an animal processing food twice by eating its own droppings, usually due to a lack of a rumen * Rabbits do this. * Beavers do this Huge Digestive Tract is what animals without a rumen or coprophagy have to help them digest food * Porcupines have a huge digestive tract Fruit as a Source of Food A lot of animals use fruit as a food source, some as their only source and others incorporate them. Waxwings are fruit eating specialists Seed Dispersers are animals that eat plants/fruits and poop out seeds thereby helping the chances of growth of those plants/fruits’ and are not interested in the seeds. * They have large gapes (mouth opening) for fast ingestion * They have short intestines for fast digestion Seed Predators are animals that eat seeds only, throwing away the flesh of the plant/fruit * Crossed Bills are special bills that are crossed (not straight) * Red Crossbills eat pine cones and use their crossed bill to open the scales of the cones to get to their seeds. * Crossed Bills have difficulty getting grit, this is the negative * Incisors are used to get to the seed * Red Squirrels use their incisors to get pinecone seeds * Blue jays use their bills as hammers by hitting acorns with it to get to the seed. * American Goldfinches have tiny bills to access thistle seeds. Animals dealing with Plant Chemical Defences Herbivores need to come up with strategies protecting them from poison or damage from poisonous plants. (i.e a plant with chemical defences) MFOs are special enzymes that neutralize toxins of plants and allow herbivores to eat the plant without being harmed Vein Drain is a process used by herbivores that sequester poison from plants, they control the flow of poison the plant transfers by cutting the veins that transfer poison in the plant, sequestering the little amount of poison the plant then produces. Seasonal Diets Moose switch their diets, eating foods high in sodium during the summer, storing it in their rumen, and then eating foods low in sodium during the winter. * Leaves and Twigs are very low in sodium, which is what the moose eats during winter * Road Water/Mud in the spring is where they get their sodium during the spring. * Water-shield is an aquatic plant that contains 500x more sodium than land plants, and is what the moose eats during the summer Class 11 Animals Eating Other Animals (Predation) Advantages of eating animals over plants * Higher level of protein * Easier to digest Disadvantages of eating animals over plants * Can be hard to find and hard to catch * Harder to catch and well protected * They fight back Predation is the act of animals eating other animals. * The first stage of this is locating the prey * The second stage is capturing the prey * The final stage is immobilizing (killing) the prey Hawks are birds that hunt during the daytime * They have Sharp Vision * They have large eyes that collect light for better responsiveness * They have a large number of Cones that help with sharp vision * They have Large Eyes that are able to magnify their vision by 2 to 3 times (important; this is widely exaggerated to be much more) * Eyes are placed on the front for depth perception, giving them a better idea of how far they have to jump/dive to get to their prey Visual Hunters are animals that hunt dependent on their vision * Jumping Spiders have some of the best vision in spiders, and are unique in that they can change their field of vision without moving their eyes and are Visual Hunters * Crab Spiders are also Visual Hunters Finding Prey >Vision Large Eyes are beneficial, and give more light. * Frogs have big eyes for hunting * Glycogen Rich Rods make their eyes more light-sensitive Frontal Placement of eyes gives more depth perception Compound Eyes use many pieces to create a single image that the insect sees * Dragonflies have this as well. * Tiger Beetles have this, and hunt during the day. Simple Eyes means non-compound eyes * Spiders have 8 simple eyes Whirligigs have special eyes that can see above and below water at the same time because their eyes are half above water and half below the water >Hearing Large Pinnae (Ears) magnify sound for animals * Wolves have big ears. Owls have no external pinnae (ears) but hear very well with their faces. * Facial Disks capture sound and direct sound to their ears hidden under their fur * Gray Tree Owls do this * Wide head and Asymmetrical (non-symmetric) ear positioning of the Owls help them to hear and pinpoint sound. Echolocation is bouncing ultrasound (frequency humans cannot hear) off things to get a better image of what the thing is * Bats use Echolocation (bouncing sound off things and animals) to get a better image of what is there. * Shrews also use Echolocation Smell (Olfactory Sense) Elongated Snout (Longer Nose) helps with analyzation of smell * Flemen (Already seen earlier) * Scent Trails are easier to follow at dusk. * Snakes use the Jacobson's Organ (seen earlier) Touch (Tactile), tactile meaning the sense of touch Raccoon's front paws are Touch sensitive front paws that have a lot of sensory cells used to analyze the thing they are touching Vibrissae (Whiskers) are on many mammals and help them find prey * Otters have them * Foxes have them Rictal Bristles are hair-like feathers near the mouth of some birds that help them find prey. Eimer’s Organ is what Star-nosed Moles have in their Nose Protuberances (the fingers on the nose) which gives them a 3D-like picture of their surroundings, very detailed. Herbst Corpuscles are sensory cells that react to pressure and give the animal information on what it is they are touching. * Sandpipers have Herbst Corpuscles in the tip of their bills. * Ducks have Herbst Corpuscles too. * Woodpeckers have Herbst Corpuscles in the tip of their tongues. Rattlesnakes have infrared heat sensors that notify them of what is in their vision, and can detect the slightest change in temperature (Heat Detection) Capturing Prey Active Searching is actively searching for prey * Foxes do this * Spiders do this * Tiger Beetles also search and capture Animals that wait for their prey to come to them * Prey Mantis * Most Owls * Crab Spiders * Crab Spiders can change colors Class 12 Capturing Prey (Cont.) Traps Flight Intercept traps are meant to trap flying animals. * Some spider webs are Flight Intercept Traps * Orb-weaver spiders weave orb-shape webs Argiope spiders have webs that they use as Flight Intercept Traps * They have a Stabilimentum on their webs that is a highly visible silk on the middle of the web, it emits UV patterns that plants do, attracting insects by making them think it is a plant * Spider’s body also has that same UV pattern, aiding in the masquerade of a plant. Pitfall traps are traps made in the ground, in a form of a ‘pit’ * Ant-lion larvae hide in pits, buried in, and wait for ants to appear to eat them. * Mole-tunnels can be considered as a pitfall trap, if prey falls in, it will eat them. Aggressive Mimicry is using the body to look like something to attract prey * Alligator Snapping Turtle open their mouth and use their tongues to look like worms that fish are lured to and eaten * Angler Fish has an appendage on its head that is used to attract fish to eat. Funnel Weaver Spiders build webs on the ground, targetting things that would step on them. Sheet-web Spiders create webs consisting of two components; sharp edges for insects to trip and fall down in the sticky second component, the bowl. Spider Webs Facts * Spider Webs are Hygroscopic meaning they absorb moisture. * Webs can contain 6 or more types of silk * Spiders can recycle silk from broken webs Mouth Most mammals have canines for hunting. Golden Eagles have a Meathook tip (their beak is in the form of a hook.) Mergansers (Ducks) have long narrow beaks with serrated edges (like serrated edges of a knife) to catch fitch Otters have canines that help them eat and capture fish Tiger Beetles use modified mandibles for capturing their prey. Tongues Animals have extensible tongue that they use to capture and eat prey * Frogs perform a Tongue Flick to capture prey, which is the action of flicking their long tongue out to capture prey. * Woodpeckers tongues are extremely long; it rolls up all way near its eye. * Hyoid Horns is what shoot the tongue out and extend it. Legs Some spiders do not use webs and instead use their legs to capture prey * Crab Spiders hide on flowers, using their legs to capture prey * Jumping Spiders use their legs to capture prey Praying Mantis are legs used for capturing prey and are called Raptorial Legs Birds have Talons that are strong toes used to capture prey * Hawks kill with their talons and are common hawks that attack mourning doves and sparrows. * Osprey Hawks have special feet for catching fish * They have scales on the underside of their toes to help grab slippery fish. * They have a reversible outer toe that may help them pierce the fish better when hunting * Owls also have a reversible toe that help them capture their prey too Killing Prey Mouth Temporalis power Canines for the lethal bites to kill prey. Shake and Break is shaking prey to break its neck and kill it * Foxes use this techniques Slash and Shock is slashing prey up and shocking it by bites, eventually bleeding the animal to death, used on larger animals * Wolves use this technique against Moose Weasels bite into the cranium (brain case) to kill their prey. Cats bite into the neck vertebrae. Larger birds of prey kill with their Raptorial Bill (Predatory Bill). Shrikes kill with their bill and also use their bill to carry prey (they have weak legs). Some Snakes swallow their prey whole while it is alive Constrictors are snakes that kill the animals by suffocating them, when the prey exhales (reducing their body size), they tighten their grip, and continue this until the prey dies * Gray Rat Snakes are Constrictors * Milk Snakes are Constrictors Injected Toxins Injected Toxins contain digestive enzymes that break prey down into liquid and is used by predators * Massasauga Rattlesnake have poisonous bites and inject Venom into prey * Crab Spiders also use injected toxins * Robber Flies also use injected toxins * Short-tailed Shrews also use injected toxins Selective Feeding are predators that only eat certain parts of their prey, leaving indigestible parts behind * Predatory Insects that kill the prey will usually not eat everything of the animal; they slurp what they need. * Predatory Birds pluck off fur and indigestible stuff and then eat the meat underneath. * Fishers skin porcupines before eating them, removing the meat from underneath the skin with spines. * Wolves can eat small bones, but avoid big bones, and pass indigestible pieces through their body by wrapping that part with hair first. * Owls swallow their prey whole, and they cough out pellets that contain the prey’s bones that could not be digested. Predator Challenges Predators have their own set of problems and drawbacks. Bioaccumulation is ingesting toxins indirectly through the prey a predator has eaten. Botulism is a syndrome of bioaccumulation; birds eat fish from contaminated waters, and they die due to bioaccumulation from the fish. * Peregrine Falcons were driven near extinction due to DDT poisoning. The bioaccumulation resulted in thinner eggs and made them more clumsy as they would knock off their eggs by mistake from their nests, killing the eggs Human Prejudice is the killing of predatory animals due to fear that these animals are dangerous/scary. * Coyotes are killed year-round. * Friendly fire is the idea that humans began killing for some good purpose, for example humans began killing wolves in the hopes that the caribou population will increase. Starvation is the main reason predators die and the biggest challenge they face. Predators play a role in natural selection where sick animals are killed first. Class 13 Host is the animal that the organism (parasitoid) is currently in. Ovipositor is an egg-laying apparatus that female insects have and use to inject eggs in a host. Parasitoids are animals that eat their hosts from the inside and kill the host. * Braconid Wasps Larvae feed on caterpillars, they begin emerging out of the host caterpillar when in pupa state. * Tachinid Flies Larvae are parasitoids. * Flesh Flies Larvae are parasitoids. Insects Laying Parasitoids Many insects lay parasitoids on other insects, which means laying their eggs on them. Thread-waisted Wasps paralyze caterpillars and take them to their borough, and then lay their eggs on the caterpillar. The caterpillar ultimately dies, once the eggs hatch. * Spider Wasps do this with spiders Cerceris is a digger wasp that first digs a hole, spends a night in the hole, and then brings in beetles and lay their eggs in there, in the hole. Parasitoid Insects Finding a Host Visual Scanning is simply searching for a right host visually. Megarhyssa Ichneumon wasps have very long ovipositors that they use to drill in tree barks, looking for fly grubs to lay eggs on. They sense the larvae by smell and vibrations. Pelecinid Wasps lay eggs on June Beetle Grubs in the ground by digging in the ground Some wasps lay their eggs inside golden grub galls, inside the fly larvae surviving the winter there. Snapping Turtle Eggs get parasitoid eggs laid on them by wandering flies that lay their eggs when the snapping turtles are laying their eggs. Parasites are animals that feed on the host but do not kill the host. Obligate Parasites are parasites that only feed on blood * Leeches are obligate parasites * Ticks are obligate parasites Anticoagulants are enzymes injected by parasites that prevent blood from clotting (keeping the blood flow continuous) Ectoparasites are parasites that live on the outside of the host. * Leeches are ectoparasites in all stages * Moose Ticks are ticks that are found in the winter on a moose * Engorged (Pregnant) Female Moose Ticks leave the moose to lay their eggs, and later climb on coming mooses again to continue the cycle. * Lyme Disease can be caused to humans by ticks feeding off on humans. * Arrenurus are aquatic mites attach to children dragonflies, and transfer to the adult dragonfly. * Ectoparasitic Flies are flies that attach onto animals * Flat Flies are flies that attach onto birds * Bat Flies are flies that attach onto bats * Glochidium is an ectoparasite on a fish’s gills and fins * Baby Clams are Glochidium * Pocketbook Clams opens up their shells and show a Mantle that looks like a fish, attracting other fish and, when the fish is close, spews its children near the fish to be inhaled through the gills. Haller’s organ is an organ that detects temperature changes, and tracks down a possible host by the host’s breath. Class 14 Remaining On The Host Claws can be used to grip the skin * Flat flies have claws that grab onto the skin of the host. Mouthparts can be used to penetrate and hold on to the host. * Leech have slicing/dicing mouth parts that cut the skin open and begin sucking the blood and sucking on to the skin (attaching themselves) * Hypostome is a mouthpart that Ticks have that has barbs that will clutch onto the skin preventing the mouthpart from leaving the host. Problems with Ectoparasites * They face a problem of the host dying, which will cause them to die as well most likely * They face a problem of being removed by the host * Foxes scratch themselves, and can remove the ectoparasite * Birds groom and preen their feathers, and this process can remove the ectoparasite * Pectinate Toe is a special grooming claw Herons have that can possibly remove ectoparasites * Beavers have a double/split toenail on each foot that they use for grooming that can possible remove ectoparasites * No one really knows how they use it Endoparasites are parasites that live inside the host Endoparasites often transition through hosts * Definitive Hosts are the end host for a parasite * Deers are the definitive hosts for Brainworms * Intermediate Hosts are not end hosts for a parasite but are a host in the middle * Snails and Slugs are intermediate hosts for Brainworm Larvae Parasitic Castration is changing the behaviour of the host chemically, removing the sexual hormones of host, so removing the sex drive of the host basically, reducing risk of being killed. Cuterebras are Bot Flies that are endoparasitic only in the larval stage, and are commonly found in mice and squirrels * Bot Flies eggs hatch from the heat of an animal walking on the ground, the hatched larvae then shoot themselves onto the animal, attempting to enter through any hole. * The Larva, once it has entered the the animal, makes a hole in the stomach so that it can breath. Brainworms live inside a Deer and have an interesting life cycle * Definitive Host: Deer, the brainworm live inside the brain of the deer. * They have no negative effect on the deer and their eggs exit the deer along with the deer’s poop, so that it is consumed by a snail or slug as an intermediate host. * Intermediate Host: Snails / Slugs, they ingest the larvae by eating deer droppings. * The larvae alters the behaviour of the snail and makes it a daytime feeder, thereby having more chances of being eaten by a deer through leaves. * The larvae travels to the deer’s brain through its stomach to its brain through the spine. * Brainworms have no effect on their definitive host (the deer) but can critically injure a Moose * They damage the spine while making their way into the brain, and eventually kill the Moose. Fluke Flatworms * Definitive Host: Robins, they leave the robin through its poop * Intermediate Host: Aquatic Snails, they alter the snail’s tentacles, making them very colorful to lure Robins into eating them Problems with Endoparasites * Host dying * Intermediate Host isn’t found * Wrong Host is entered, thereby killing the host by mistake Scavengers are animals that feed on dead animals. Facultative scavengers are part-time scavengers * Eagles are facultative scavengers * Gulls are facultative scavengers * Ravens are facultative scavengers Obligate Scavengers are full-time scavengers * Turkey Vultures are obligate scavengers and have adaptations for scavenging * They have a large olfactory bulb in their brain that converts blood into a smell the vulture they looks for. * They are bald to prevent blood/dirty material from getting stuck onto their head * They have non-separated nostrils * They have a raptorial bill for ripping apart meat * They soar very low and slow in order to better smell odors * Blow Fly Maggots/Larvae are obligate scavengers, the adult blow fly lays its eggs on the dead animal and then the maggot/larvae eats feeds on the dead animal Necrophagous means eating the flesh of a dead animal * Burying Beetles / Carrion Beetles are Necrophagous and are beetles that drag animals down to the ground. * Female Carrion Beetles will attract male carrion beetles and both will climb inside the dead animal to move the dead animal in the ground. * The larvae of the burying beetles are obligate scavengers, not the burying beetles. Predictable Food Shortages are food shortages that are expected by animals so they plan ahead of time. Animals have solutions to predictable food shortages * Dormancy / Hibernation * Migration Unpredictable Food Shortages are food shortages that are not expected - the food fluctuates year by year, and is inconsistent. * Nuts are unpredictable food shortages * Berries are unpredictable food shortages * Small Mammals are unpredictable food shortages Animals have solutions to unpredictable food shortages * Irruptive/Nomadic means an eruption of animals; meaning normally there is a small number or none, but then an amazing number appears the next time. * Bohemian Waxwings are fruit specialists and move to areas with large fruit crops and thereby are Irruptive * Crossbills are seed specialists and are Irruptive * Great Gray Owls are Irruptive Class 15 Unpredictable food shortages (Cont.) Predatory animals face this challenge of unpredictable food shortages because they catch their prey, and they are not guaranteed to catch their food every time. Storing food when they are able to hunt more is one technique some predatory animals use to prepare for when food is short. Larder is the location of where animals store their food * Northern Shrikes larder is spines they impale the food in * Owls larder is tree branches they put food on Scatter Hoarding is the action of saving food in many different locations * Gray Squirrels scatter hoard and in the winter, find the locations by memory to dig them back up. * Gray Jays also scatter hoard food winter Red Squirrels create Middens which are a number of large storages of cones Beavers create a food pile which is a central cache (one storage of all the food) of branches * Drag Trail are trails where Beavers have dragged branches * Poplar branches are what Beavers like to eat Physical Adaptations for Food Storage * Chipmunks have expandable cheek pouches that allow the chipmunk to store many seeds in its mouth at once * Enlarged salivary glands encoat their food in saliva (Gray Jay) * Gray Jays have enlarged salivary glands * Sticky Saliva to help glue the food onto things (Gray Jay) * Gray Jays have sticky saliva. * Nesting Early allows birds them more time to store food (Gray Jay) * Gray Jays nest early. * Spatial Memory is the memory of the habitat, revealing the location of their food * A large Hippocampus provides excellent spatial memory * Chickadee's hippocampus grows before the winter * Gray Jays have spatial memory. Frozen food (animals) are thawed out by animals sitting on the dead animal before eating it to thaw it out. Plants Food Challenges Not all plants make their own food (most do), and there are prerequisites for the ones that do. Photosynthesis is the process used by plants to create food Heterotroph is a plant that cannot make its own food. Autotrophic is a plant that can make its own food through photosynthesis, and require certain materials for this process to occur. * Water * Sunlight * Nutrients * Nitrogen * Phosphorus * Calcium Mycorrhizae are fungal partners with plants that help provide plants with required nutrients that can be hard to find by the plant directly. * Mycorrhizae also prevent toxic compounds from being consumed by the plant. * Endomycorrhizae are mycorrhizae found inside the roots * Orchids have this * Ectomycorrhizae are mycorrhizae found on the outside of the plant * Spruces have this Bogs are areas where materials for autotrophic plants are hard to find * Heath plants thrive in bogs and survive with the help of mycorrhizae Alders have Root Nodules that convert nitrogen for plant consumption Carnivorous plants eat insects for nutrients Adhesive (Sticky) Traps are used by carnivorous plants to trap insects to eat. * Sundews have sticky hairs on the outside to capture insects and have hairs on the inside that contain digestive enzymes to digest the prey * Butterworts also use adhesive traps Pitcher-plants are carnivorous and have pitfall traps * They have colorful patterns on the opening to attract insects and have downward pointing hairs that direct the animal down to a slippery slope that leads to a pitcher of water from rain. The plant then adds digestive enzymes in the water to eat the prey. Bladderworts are also carnivorous and have suction traps * They have underwater leaves that have small nerves on them that cause a chain reaction when an insect touches them; a trap door opens, sucking up the insect, and then enzymes digest the prey. Shade is a lack of sunlight and this poses as a problem to plants Shade plants have a large surface area of leaves and have more chlorophyll b than chlorophyll a to bring more sunlight in. Round-leaved orchid have huge, thin and flat leaves turned outwards to capture more sunlight * Thin and flat leaves offer other advantages as well * Less energy spent in building support issues * Light reaches photosynthetic cells more quickly * Keeps other plants from growing nearby as competition Hobblebush also have huge leaves with a large surface area to capture more sunlight. Bunchberry plants have a lot of leaves and have a Clonal Growth, meaning the plant has a lot of leaves to capture sunlight. Phototropism is growing away from shade Wild Cucumbers have thigmotropic tendrils (wrapping around on touch) and attempt to grow on top of possible competition. Trilliums bloom before trees have a chance to grow their leaves back from the winter, and are Spring Ephemerals do not live for very long as they face the issue of frost because they bloom early, and issues dealing with cold temperatures. Class 16 Mycoheterotrophs are plants that do not require sunlight because they get nutrition from fungus (mycorrhizal) * Coralroots * Indian Pipe Flower * Gets its carbon products from living plants, thereby it lives like a parasite and is also a mycoheterotroph Mixotrophs are plants that make their own food through photosynthesis AND get food from mycorrhizae (fungal partners) * Shade Dwelling Orchids are mixotrophs Holoparasites are plants that steal food from other plants mycorrhizae, that is the only source of their food. They copy a plant’s chemicals to attract that plant’s mycorrhizae. * Cancer Root plant is a holoparasite * Witch’s Broom is an abnormal growth of leaves in a tree. (http://i66.tinypic.com/2dt6gep.png) * Dwarf Mistletoe is a holoparasite and it attaches itself to other trees, causing a witch’s broom growth on the tree, and begins stealing its food, commonly conifers tree. An excessive amount of sunlight is a problem to plants as well * Plants have leaves with small surface areas * Buttercups has angled leaves in addition to a small surface area, to combat the sunlight. * Dissected Leaves are leaves that are very chopped up, producing a small surface area. Animal Reproduction Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction * Asexual reproduction is when an animal creates a carbon copy of itself - the cells are split, and a copy is made. The downside of this is that there is no variation in genes, meaning there is a lack of change so evolution does not occur. * Sexual reproduction offers variety in the genes of the offspring, helping evolution. Sexual Selection is a subset of natural selection * Female choice is a major part of sexual selection and a driving force in evolution (stronger male mates produce strong offspring) Amplexus is a hold that Male Frogs do on females, they hug the female and press near the stomach in order to stimulate the female frog into laying eggs so that the male frog can fertilize them. External Fertilization is when fertilization (sperm meeting eggs) occurs outside the body. * Frogs use external fertilization * Fish use external fertilization * Sperm is not guaranteed to meet the egg. Internal Fertilization is when fertilization occurs inside a body, and is used by most animals. This better guarantees fertilization. * Does not require male and female to have intercourse Hermaphroditism doubles an animal’s chances of reproducing, typically these animals are slow moving. * Sponges * Clams * Slugs/Snails * Worms Sponges and Clams reproduce using internal fertilization, male sponges release their sperm into the water which is picked up by female sponges, they have special parts that then use the sperm for internal fertilization. Springtails do not meet their mates and instead leave spermatophores which are sperm-filled packages that males leave for females to pick up. Intromittent Organs are organs used to insert into another organ in order to deliver sperm * Slugs and Snails have called ‘love darts’ that are used to inject sperm into each other. * Spiders use palps that are special mouthparts and are used to insert sperm into the female’s genitalia. * Snakes have two intromittent organs called hemipenes (half penis), this allows them to mate with females from either side (left or right). (but not at the same time!) * Cloacal Kiss is when birds mate, they do not have penises, instead they have cloacas, which they press together during mating that trigger sex cells to be released. * Mammals have an intromittent organ called the penis, and is primarily used to deliver sperm. * Penises also serve to stimulate the female, to result in better ovulation. * Cat penises have spines on it for stimulation * Penises are enlarged when needed, this is to protect it from being hurt or to stop it from hindering the animal’s movement. * Penis Bone (Baculum) that provide more support to the penis. Meeting the mate Barnacles meet by chance, the male’s penis begins moving and attempts to find another barnacle to mate with. They have a ‘wandering’ penis and it can be 40x larger than themselves. Advertising Auditory Advertisements are used by animals to notify other potential mates that they are prepared to mate. Non-vocal auditory advertisements * Drum is the sound that Woodpeckers create by hammering their beaks in wood * Ruffed Grouse produce drum by flapping their wings really quickly to generate the sound. * Snipes make their sounds by vibrating their tail while in the air, this action is called Winnowing * Stridulation is producing sounds by rubbing body parts together * Crickets and Grasshoppers can advertise by rubbing their body parts together. * Cicadas use their tymbals to make loud noises during really hot days (they require that heat to move their muscles rapidly), attempting to attract females. Vocal Auditory Advertisements * Toads/Frogs take in air in small spurs through their nostrils, filling up their vocal sac. Their sound is produced internally and then resonated in the bloated chamber. These are extensible throat sacs that act as resonating chambers. Class 17 Auditory Advertisements (cont.) Males make these auditory advertisements to attract females. Tympanum is an eardrum that helps processing sounds. * Male Bullfrogs have larger tympanums than female Bullfrogs, perhaps to listen competitors better. Syrinx is a structure in birds that allows them to sing two songs at one time. This means they can produce two different songs at the same time, resulting in one combined song. Bird songs are used for advertisement to females, and ownership of territory to other males. * Warblers sing two different songs * Sing one for ownership of territory and a different one for mate attraction * Female birds choose males based on their song; they look for males with good songs. Rut is the moose mating period, and usually there is a mist around the area with little frost. * Moose Cows (females) create auditory advertisements for Moose Bulls (males). * Moose Bulls (males) creates sounds by thrashing, this tells other males that they are here and to stay away and tell females that they are interested in mating as well. Advantages of Sounds (Mate Attraction) * Sounds carries a long distance, so mates can come without seeing the animal making the sound, as well as there is a greater chance of reaching more mates. Disadvantages of Sounds (Mate Attraction) * Predators and parasitoids can hear you * Satellite Males are males that wait on the borderlines of other male territories, listen for their advertisements, and then steal mates * When the female comes in, they pretend to be the male that generated the sound, and attempt to mate with them. Visual Advertisements Birds have bright colors in order to get attention from female birds. * Female Mallards choose males with the most green head. * Female House Finches choose the most brightly colored males. * Phalaropes are one of the few species where females are colorful and are selected by the males. The females court the males, and once they have mated, the female lays her eggs and leaves, finding a different mate. Ornaments are badges of maturity or status, shown to impress female mates. Atlantic Puffins grow grooves on their beak that take two years to grow, each. * Females only choose males with two or more grooves. This is because this proves the male is a good long term survivor. Antlers are ornaments and change size and shape with age * They reveal age and health of the animal; deformed antlers might indicate clumsiness. * The spikes on antlers are called tines, and the flat part is called palms, both change with age. * Velvet is the material that covers the growing antler and provides nutrients. * They are shed every winter and grow back the next year; they are only used for mating. * Sparring is done by two male animals with antlers to determine which animal is stronger. * Even though it is not meant to be fatal, accidental injuries may hinder the animal’s ability of finding a female. * White tailed deer have antlers * Bull (male) Moose have antlers Dobsonflies (Only Male) has gigantic tusk-like structures that can be used to fight other males. Ritualized Displays are displays in a species that is common amongst that species * Hooded Mergansers use Head Displays and have a hood on their head * Males raise and lower their hood to impress females * Ruffed Grouse use Neck Ruff and Tail displays * Their neck feathers (afro like) show around the neck during mating season. They use this neck ruff and tails to attract females Class 18 Aerial Displays Swarms of male Midges form and wait for females to fly in, upon which they dance, and the female chooses the best dancer. Female Ebony Jewelwing (Damselflies) have white spots on the end of their wings and flap their wings rapidly to notify a nearby male of acceptance or open up their wings flat to notify a nearby male of rejection Male Ebony Jewelwing sperm is produced in a holding chamber near their head. They have a pinsir used to hold the female during courtship and used to put their sperm in the female, as well as removing any existing male's sperm. Fireflies use aerial light display and flash their light in a specific pattern to find potential females. Synchronized Displays are displays where both the male and female participate * Swans perform Mutual Displays, doing series of actions together at the same time * Sandhill Cranes perform Ritualized Dances, taking turns bowing and jumping. Communal Display Grounds are where males gather to perform a common display action together to get attention from females * Leks are where male birds gather to perform to impress females * Male Sharp-tailed Grouse dance at leks * Male Wild Turkeys gather together and dance for the female Olfactory (Smell) Advertisements are Sex Pheromones (are chemical advertisements) and are a safer form of advertisement, as predators usually do not track these pheromones. Cows (female moose) urinate to spread their sex pheromones for Bulls (male moose) to hear and smell. * Bulls will lick the air to grab pheromones and will try to analyze them. Rut Pits (Wallow Pits) are pits that Bulls (male moose) make by their hooves that they urinate on to release their sex pheromones, they roll in them to pick up those pheromones. Female Snakes leave Pheromone Trails for males to track, this leads to males swarming where multiple male snakes gather in attempts to court the female. Female Insects produce sex pheromones that males track using their antennae, leading them to the female. * Silk Moths advertize with Pheromones and purely exist for sexual reproduction, as they have no mouth after they come out of pupae stage, leading to death by starvation. Male Snowshoe Hares urinate on the female to stimulate her, this contains pheromones. Porcupines urinate in the same way as the hares. Gift Giving Courtship is when a male impresses females by giving them something, showing that they will be good providers for any young. Cedar Waxwings give each other food as courtship gifts Male Terns also give females other food as courtship gifs Males give females food as courtship gifts to prevent being eaten by the female after sex. * Spiders and Scorpion/Dance Flies do this Male Marsh-wrens offer dummy nests to females, and create a large number to attract a lot of females, as they are polygamists. Male Bass/Bluegill Sunfish are composed of three types * Big colorful Males that make nests and attracts females normally and honestly * Satellite Males that aim to steal females the big male attracts, this type of male is composed of two types * Juvenile Males wait for females to approach and instantly release their sperm on them, they don’t face risk of the big male as they aren’t viewed as competition * Males that pretend to be a female, entering the big male’s nest and releasing their sperm on females that it attracts, they face risk of being killed from big males. Wheel is a sex position assumed by Dragonflies/Odonates which is where both the female and male form a circle. (http://i66.tinypic.com/246714k.png) Males Ensuring Paternity Contact Guarding is staying close to the female after mating, protecting her from other males * Bull Moose guard females after sex * Male Odonates use Claspers latch onto the female. Walking Sticks use their claspers (handcuffs) to keep the pair coupled for one to several days, preventing other males from mating, they experience Long Copulations. Anti-aphrodisiacs are added to the female after mating that turn other males off, lowering the chances of males coming to court the female. * Male Mosquitoes add them * Male Garter Snakes add them Copulatory Plugs are used to seal female openings with a male’s sperm, preventing other sperm from making it through. * They are NOT guarantees. Males can have methods where they can sometimes remove these plugs. * Beetles produce headless sperm that do not fertilize but plug the females opening so that no other male’s sperm gets through * Featherwing Beetles use Giant Sperm which is a huge sperm that acts as a plug * Male Mosquitos’ sperm contains cement-like material that hardens, preventing male sperm from making it. * Honey Bees’ genitals explode during sex and they die. This acts as a plug on the female, a huge plug. Class 19 Plant Reproduction Flowers exist only to reproduce and are hermaphroditic. Flower Sex Organs are composed of the following * Stamens produce sperm and are the male sex organ * Pistils produce eggs and are the female sex organ, they are composed of the following * Stigma is the part that receives the sperm from the male * Ovary is the part that holds the eggs. * Style is the long neck of the pistil * http://i64.tinypic.com/ac4i9z.png Anther Cone is a cone of Stamens fused together like the head of a rocketship almost. Pollen-grains produce sperm and are transported to female plants for fertilization Pollination is when the sperm meets the egg and fertilization occurs. Double Fertilization is unique to plants and is the fact that two eggs are fertilized by two sperms. Only one becomes an embryo; the other egg becomes food for the embryo. Transporting Pollen-grains Pollinators are animals that transport pollen grains from one plant to another, usually in exchange for food. * Hummingbirds, Bees, Butterflies and Beetles are examples of pollinators Anemophily is wind pollination where the wind transports pollen grains to other plants. * This requires their pollen grains to be small and lightweight. * Plants produce a large amount of pollen grains as delivery is not guaranteed * Sedges produce pollen designed for the wind, are wind-pollinated * Grass is wind-pollinated * Ragweed is wind-pollinated * Conifer is wind-pollinated Hydrophily is water pollination, but is used by very few plants. Entomophily is pollination by Insects, the plant usually offers food to the insects, such as nectar or the pollen itself. Nectar is usually sugar water. Long Spurs store nectar and require long mouthparts to access their nectar * Cardinal Flowers are red and have long spurs and attract hummingbirds * Hummingbirds can reach Long Spurs * Long-tongued Bees (including Bumble Bees) can reach Long Spurs * Moths can reach Long Spurs Buttercup Plant stores nectar in sleeves at the base of petals called Buttercup Nectaries Milkweeds hold nectar in shallow cups Bees have a Pollen Basket on their legs which carries the pollen they collect from plants and have special legs to grab pollen from the plant. Attraction Advertisements to Pollinators Shape and Colour are Long Range Visual Attractants Insects see colours differently than humans, and specific combinations attract specific insects. * Red is seen by very few insects, but is seen well by Hummingbirds. * Green appears as gray. * Yellow appears as red. Scents attract insects to the plant and are Close Range Attractants * Evening Primrose releases scents only at dusk because it is attracting moths as pollinators that appear when the sun goes down Brood Site Deception is when a flower release scents that attract insects, making them think the plant is a place to lay eggs * Wild Ginger attracts Fungus Gnats, smells like decaying fungus. * Red Trilliums attracts Carrion Flies, smell like rotting flesh. Nectar Guides are patterns on flowers that guide insect to where the nectar is stored * Insects see patterns that seem invisible to humans, extremely visible to them, and hence a lot of nectar guides are hidden to humans, only visible to insects Class 20 Cross-pollination (outbreeding) is better than self-pollination (inbreeding) because it creates a greater genetic diversity. Avoiding Self-pollination Self-incompatibility is the inability of plants to self-pollinate; this occurs due to chemicals that fertilize the egg realizing the pollen is from the plant itself, and not coming into agreement, preventing fertilization. Spatial Separation is keeping male/females apart from each other to prevent self-pollination and there are two techniques of achieving it * Sexes can be placed on different parts of the tree or plant. * Females are generally at the top, and males are at the bottom, this is due to the wind carrying pollen and is better for it to be blown up to the females. * Sexes can appear on different plants, making each plant have one gender * White Campion are either only male or female Spatial Placement is having the sexual organs placed differently. * Bottle (Closed) Gentian have their sticky stigma near the top to capture pollen from insects landing, and have their stamens underneath to prevent any self-pollen being consumed when the insect is leaving from the bottom. Dichogamy (temporal separation) is a plant being a different sex depending on the time, preventing the plant from being both sexes at the same time. * Jewelweed flowers start off as males until eventually the stamen falls off and reveals the flower’s stigma, leaving them females. * Spiral Flowers start off closed, the lower flowers open first and are male with pollen, and change into females after that pollen is removed * Pollinators start at the lower flowers and work their way up, once the lower flowers change to female, the pollinators are attracted to them and pollinate them, and then go back to the males, leaving with pollen. Pink Lady’s-slippers pretend to have nectar but actually do not, they are closed and require strong bees to come around and open them, are bee-pollinated * Hairs start getting thicker near the flower’s top, serving as guidance patterns towards the top * Staminodes are a mixture of stamens and pistils that are near the exit at the top in the plants and capture pollen off the bee Pseudo-pollen are hairs that are fake-pollen, they attracts pollinators looking for real pollen and place pollen on a pollinator that comes in believing it is real pollen. Pseudo-nectaries are hairs that are fake-nectar that glisten to look like nectar. * Grass-of-Parnassus attracts pollinators using pseudo nectaries Bee and Fly Orchids look and smell like female bees and flies respectively, attracting the male counter-parts, attaching pollen onto them once they attempt to mate with it. Helleborines release fake wound hormones that attract wasps. It does provide nectar to the insects. It is the only plant in the world that does this. Heterostyly is a plant having multiple forms based on length of their style * Pickerelweed Flowers have three forms of flowers. * Purple Loosestrifes have three forms, pollen from one form cannot pollinate the same form; it must pollinate a different form. * A short style form * A medium style form * A long style form * http://i68.tinypic.com/id61ig.png Queen Anne’s Lace are white flowers, but have a tiny purple flower inside it; no one knows why. A theory is that it is possible a decoy for insects to land on. Milkweeds have slits to capture an insect’s leg walking on it so that it can clamp on a saddlebag of pollen onto the captured leg. Slits will clamp off existing pollen saddlebags. White Water-Lilies are initially female and have openings that attract insects, they close near nighttime and traps insects currently inside it. It becomes a male by morning and grows stamens that insects have to go through to exit the opening, leaving with pollen on them. Grass Pinks have pseudo-pollen on a petal that collapses on contact, forcing an insect to fall on the sexual organs of the plant. Insect’s back will be inspected for pollen by female parts, and it will leave covered in pollen. (Slam Dunk Method) Laurels have bashing stamens that are bent stamens that hit the pollinator if it steps on one, covering it with pollen. Bunchberry (pop flowers) are closed initially and have spikes that pop the flower open once stepped on, putting pollen over the triggerer. Its stamens are the fastest moving floral parts in the world. Twayblades have petals that start off as males, and upon being stepped on, release pollen onto the triggerer. Those petals change to females that pull off pollen once triggered. Cross-pollination is the general rule, but in some cases, self-pollination is necessary. * Dandylions primarily self-pollinate because they typically grow in habitats that are dying. * Spring Ephemerals have Cleistogamous Flowers that self-pollinate incase the plant is unable to survive due to cold conditions Class 21 Seed Dispersal is plants getting off their newborn seeds to a good start in life, these are the advantages * Avoiding crowding and competition with the mother plant * Prevents inbreeding/spreading of diseases * Gives the offspring a better chance of survival as they will not all be in one place Plants protect their seeds until they are mature. Physical protection * Cones have physical protection (the cone itself) * Acorns have Hard Seed Coats (Armor) Chemical protection * Terpenoids are used to protect the seeds * Aposematic Colouration (warns predators, don’t eat me I’m not ready) * Resin, a terpenoid, is used for chemical protection * Cones have resin * Berries are pale in color and taste bitter when they are not ready to be consumed * Milkweed seeds are protected by the pod that holds the seeds that are full of Cardiac Glycosides (Terpenoids) Plants have multiple ways of sending off their seeds, so that the seeds can grow into plants. Anemochory is Wind Dispersal of seeds and is used by plants that grow in open sunny areas. * Anemochory has a flaw, the seed can miss the target, to make up for this, plants produce a large quantity of seeds * Fireweed produces 70k-100k seeds. * Dandelions use anemochory for seed dispersal Zoochory is dispersing seeds through animals * Seeds can get attached to the animal physically in an attempt to disperse * Stick-tight plant’s seeds hooks and barbs get caught on hairs or feathers of animals, they hitch-hike * Burs use Velcro to stick onto animals * Queen Anne’s Lace has an umbel that contains parts that will attach seeds to animals, it closes during wet days and opens during dry days. * Seed Dispersers are animals that eat fruit and then poop out the seeds * Black bears eat berries and are seed dispersers * Waxwings eat berries and are seed dispersers Some plants entice animals to carry their seeds for them by providing them something in return * Elaiosomes are protein packages that ants love, and are used to entice ants into dispersing the seed. * Spring Ephemerals pay ants (mostly carpenter ants) for dispersing seeds. * Violet also pay ants and use ballistic ejection, throwing out its seeds on the ground for the ants to take Animals that scatter hoard seeds and forget about them or get killed, end up helping the seeds disperse. Raindrops are used to in plants to help with seed dispersal by hitting the plant and splashing the plants seeds out * Miterworts have Splash Cups are cups that have seeds and use raindrops to splash their seeds out * Foamflowers have springboards, which act like a diving board; raindrops hit the end and then the seeds pop out Plant Adaptations for Anemochory * Maple samaras (keys) seeds have little wings on them so that the seed do not land directly underneath the tree * Basswood seeds have sails that help them fly when the seed is dropped. * Indian Pipe flowers time the maturing of their seeds, they bloom late in the summer when wind is available to blow away its seeds. * Perched Birch Trees are Yellow Birch trees that had their seeds grow directly underneath them due to a lack of adaptation Plants that grow near the shoreline need adaptations as well * Seeds that use Hydrochory (water dispersal) have flotation devices making them float on water so that wind takes them away from the original plant. They finally sink to become an underwater flower * Jewelweed grows in wet places and use Ballistic Ejection to throw its seeds several meters from the plant when touched. Boom or bust strategy is when plants control their seed population depending on the condition; produce less if conditions are poor, produce more if conditions are good. Parental Care is animals getting off their newborn children off to a good start in life. American Toads do not care for the young after fertilization Females in certain animals, choose the right habitat for their eggs before laying them * Dragonflies choose the right habitat before laying their eggs * Small Snakes choose under rotting logs as place for laying their eggs, as this provides a warm and humid environment for the eggs. * Monarch Butterflies lay their eggs on young milkweeds so that the caterpillars are able to eat the milkweed when it hatches. (Idea is laying the egg on the young’s food source) * Ephemeral Ponds are temporary ponds caused by snow drying up * Freeze-tolerant frogs lay their eggs in these ponds before any fish get there, since they are freeze-tolerant, they’re able to unfreeze early and get first access to the pond, leaving their young protected. This COULD be a reason why these frogs are freeze-tolerant in the first place. Turtles only effort towards Parental Care is digging a hole and laying their eggs there to conceal them until they hatch, otherwise they display no parental care. * The soil temperature determines the sex of the turtle Class 22 Gestation period is the period of pregnancy for mammals. Walking Stick eggs are laid on the ground, but are transported underground by ants as they have edible capitulum that ants like. Northern Water and Garter Snakes hold their eggs internally until they hatch, this is called Ovoviviparity. Females in some animals both lay and guard their eggs * Five-lined skinks protect their eggs by laying them inside rocks, and guard them. * Red-backed Salamanders lay their eggs inside rotting logs and guard them. * Wolf Spiders carry their eggs on their back in an egg sac, they hatch on the mother. * Nursery Web Spiders build a nursery web in which they guard their egg sac and hatched young. Males in some animals guards the eggs * Bass (fish) do * Giant Water Bugs do and carry the eggs on their back Precocial is when an animal is born in a relatively mature, self-sufficient state, typically these animals stay inside the mother longer. * Precocial baby birds are called chicks and leave the nest after hatching, which is why their nests aren’t very developed, and are very small, as they leave immediately. Altricial is when an animal is born in a helpless state, typically these animals stay a small amount of time inside the mother. * Altricial baby birds are called nestlings and live in the the nest after hatching which is why their nests are heavily developed. Moose young are precocial but they still guard them up to a year after the young is born. * The total parental investment is 20 months. In 95% of mammals, females are the ones providing all of the parental care, but there are exceptions. Biparental care is when both the mom and dad provide care to the young together * Foxes and Wolves have Biparental Care (which is both partners providing care). * More than 90% of all birds provide biparental care. Wolves are social animals, in their packs one designated female will have children leaving the rest of the pack to provide food and help raise the pups. * Rendezvous Sites are places where pups are placed for safety, adults bring food to them here.. Black Bear cubs are born highly altricial, so the female then protects the cubs for two years. Opossums have extremely altricial young, their pregnancy period is merely 13 days * The young travel into the pouch of the mother immediately to get nutrition * Opossums have forked penises and forked vaginas (very important for final) Delayed Implantation is when the sperm goes to the uterus a certain period after the mating occurs * Bears have a short gestation period of 2 months and use delayed implementation to allow females to get ready for the winter. * Fishers have delayed implantation to allow females to mate conveniently. Bats have a short gestation period of 40 days, and this occurs because bats store their sperm in a separate compartment, and during their dormancy, the sperm meets egg. Social insects such as Bumblebees also store sperm, leaving the sperm to meet the egg later. Social insects also display group care, where some workers help take care of the young. * Wasps * Ants Class 23 Incubation (sitting on egg to keep it a warm constant temp.) is a parental investment by birds, by sitting on the eggs. Birds have brood patches (stomach) which are loose bits of skin that are placed on the egg when it is being incubated. * In Phalaropes, males develop brood patches and incubate. * In most other species, the females develop brood patches and incubate. * Ducks and Grouse develop brood patches and so incubate, since the males leave after mating * Hummingbirds develop brood patches and so incubate. * Songbirds develop brood patches and so incubate. * House Finch develop brood patches and so incubate. * In some species, both the male and female develop brood patches and incubate * In Killdeer, males do the night shift of incubation, females do the day shift. * In Northern Flickers (Woodpecker), males do the night shift, females do the day shift. Clutch is a group of eggs of a single bird. Synchronous hatching is when all the eggs of a bird hatch more or less at the same time. Asynchronous hatching is when the eggs of a bird hatch at different times. * This lessens the feeding stress on the parents, as they are predatory birds, if they were all the same age, they would all need the same amount of food, which may be overwhelming. * Increases chances of survival (if one leaves the nest, and the nest is destroyed, that one survives) * Ensures survival of some young in times of food stress since young need less food * Owls and Hawks hatch asynchronously. Siblicide is when the older siblings eat the younger siblings, this is usually due to food stress. Nest Sanitation is apart of parental care. * Fecal Sacs are sacs that surround nestling poop, making it easier for parents to remove the poop from the nest. * Hawks add conifer sprigs to nests that contain tannins and prevent nest parasites Chicks have bright yellow spots in their mouths, to tell the parent where to put the food. Nest Defence is apart of parental care. * Gulls and Terns begin puking and pooping on threats in order to defend their nest. * This is an Aggressive Responses * Red-winged Blackbirds (males) have multiple female mates and know which areas have more chicks that belong to them, and they defend these areas more. * This is a Paternity Dependent defence Class 24 (Last Class) Nest Defence (cont.) Distraction Displays are when certain birds lead the predators away from the nest. * Rodent Run is when small ground birds run in multiple directions and circles to lead predators away from the nest. * Feigned Injury is the act of pretending to have an injury to lure predators away from the nest * Ducks do this, it is called a Broken Wing act * Killdeer do this, it is called a Simulated Wound, they have red patterns to look like blood. Ducks form Creches (Brood Amalgamation), one female drops off her young to another female, providing safety in numbers and a higher survival chance of the female’s young Facultative Brood Parasites are animals that rely on other animals to raise their young. * Intraspecific is when facultative brood parasites occur within the parasite’s own species. * Interspecific is when facultative brood parasites occur within different species. * Mergansers (ducks) do Egg Dumping is when a duck dumps its eggs in another female duck’s nest. * North American Cuckoos are facultative brood parasites and are both intraspecific and interspecific. Brood reduction is when less newborns survive than the number that were born * Opossums can have as many as 20-50 babies, but have only 13 nipples, meaning the first 13 to get to a nipple are the only babies that survive. * Eagles allow their oldest eaglet to kill the youngest eaglet since they only need one child. The younger child is an insurance policy incase the older one dies. This is a form of siblicide. Infanticide is when an adult animal kills a baby animal. * Female Muskrats kill their neighbour’s young. * Tree Swallows males kill a female’s children that they come to mate with, the female then becomes ready to mate again and to have that new male’s children. Female Meadow Voles that are pregnant will abort their children if a new male comes in, as the new male will kill the newborn meadow voles regardless. This is called the Bruce Effect. Obligate Brood Parasites are animals that get other animals to completely raise their young, from incubation to feeding. Brown-headed Cowbirds are obligate brood parasites and never build nests. * Adaptations * They lay their eggs fast (20-40 seconds) * Their eggs have thicker egg shells so that foster parents cannot open it. * Their eggs hatch faster (10 days) so that the babies get most of the food from the foster parent * They replace eggs from the foster parent’s nest so that the number of eggs is the same * Young cowbirds outcompetes nest mates indirectly. * Reasons for success * They create up to 40 eggs per season * They lay their eggs up to 220 different species * Finding host nests * Sit on a high perch, watching for nest-building occurring * Walk on ground, watching for nest-building occurring * Drive bird off nest by flying into shrubs and leaves and noisily flapping wings to scare the bird Some birds can figure out obligate parasites and have adaptations to rid of them. * Birds can abandon the nest and take off to create a new nest * Yellow-warblers can create a new nest on top of the defected one * Grasp Ejectors are large birds that grab the egg that is not theirs * Puncture Ejectors are small birds that break the egg to get a grip and then throw them out. Mafia Theory is a theory where a bird raises another bird’s egg in fear that if it does not, the other bird will come back and smash the other eggs in the nest. * Cuckoos have been known to do this.